Department of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences

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Nitrogen requirements of potatoes.
(Orgz, 1989) Westermann, DT.; Kleinkopf, GE.; Gathunqu, GK.; Shibairo, Solomon I.
Nitrogen fertilizer applications, for maximum fertilizer efficiencies and crop yields, should be based on the N required by the crop during its various growth stages. The objectives of this paper were to identify the N requirements of the potato plant (Solanum tuberosum L.) during growth and to evaluate selected soil and plant tissue tests as indicators of the plant's N status. Growth analysis data and soil and petiole NO3-N concentrations were obtained at predetermined time intervals from N fertilization treatments in replicated field studies on a coarse-silty mixed, mesic Durixerollic Calciorthrid soil. Maximum early tuber growth occurred when leaf area index was between 2.5 and 3.2 and the tops contained between 79 and 100 kg N ha−1 at the start of linear tuber growth. A preplant N fertilizer application between 67 and 134 kg ha−1 gave these characteristics under the experimental conditions. The maximum dry matter production rate per day (approx. 250 kg ha−1) occurred when there was between 80 and 140 kg N ha−1 in the plant tops and roots. An average tuber growth rate of 0.75 Mg ha−1 day−1 required a N uptake rate of 3.7 kg ha−1 day−1 to prevent the loss of N and dry matter from the tops and roots. Sufficient N was available for this rate when the soil NO3-N concentration was > 7.5 mg kg−1 (0.46-m soil depth), corresponding to 15 000 mg kg−1 NO3-N in the fourth petiole. Soil and petiole NO3-N concentrations may be used to adjust the N fertilization rates during the growing season. This practice has the potential of increasing the overall N fertilizer use efficiency and final tuber yields within the climatic, disease, and variety limitations.
Can fodder diets increase goat production by a quantum leap?
(Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya, 1992) Semenye, PP.; Siamba, Donald N.; Shisya, M.; Getz, W.
Growing goats, 45 Alpine and 45 Nubian, were used in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement to quantify the influence of dietary energy and protein levels on daily DM intake and nutrient utilization for growth. Goats had ad libitum access to complete mixed diets containing either 2.46, 2.77 or 3.05 Mcal/kg ME plus 11.2, 12.7 or 15.1% CP for 16 wk. Dry matter intake decreased curvilinearly as dietary ME density increased (P < .001). Dry matter intake increased linearly (P < .05) as dietary CP level increased during all growth intervals except wk 25 to 28 of age. Average daily gain was 115, 113 and 99 g/d for goats fed diets containing 2.46, 2.77 and 3.05 Mcal/kg ME, respectively. Average daily gain was 104, 106 and 117 g/d for goats fed diets with 11.2, 12.7 and 15.1% CP, respectively. Dry matter intake was higher (P < .01) for Alpine than for Nubian goats, whereas ADG was similar between breeds. Intake of ME was 248, 260 and 198 kcal/(kg.75.d) for goats fed the low- medium- and high-energy diets, respectively. Intake of CP was 9.1, 10.7 and 13.2 g/(kg.75.d) for goats fed low-, medium- and high-protein diets, respectively. Average requirements for growth derived from regression analysis of all data points were 4.6 kcal ME and .26 g CP/g ADG. The prediction equation for intake of growing goats of 4 to 8 mo of age was: DMI, g/d = 1,749 - 496 DE, kcal/g + 18 live weight, kg + 3 ADG, g/d; r2 = .73 (Sy.x = 127, P < .0001, n = 90). The requirement of ME for growth was 33% lower than the value recommended in 1981 by the National Research Council.
Effects of moisture loss on water potential components and tissue deterioration in carrots during Short-term storage
(American society for horticultural science, 1995-07-01) Shibairo, Solomon I.; Upadhyaya, MK.; Toivonen, PMA.
Studies were carried out to understand the effects of moisture loss on water potential and root deterioration in carrot (Daucus carota L. `Eagle') roots during short-term storage. The roots were stored at various temperatures and relative humidities (RH) to provide 0.7 (low), 3 (medium), and 9 mbars (high) of water vapor pressure deficit (WVPD). Carrots at high WVPD lost the most weight, followed by those at medium and lowest WVPD. Water potential and osmotic potential of the carrot tissue at high WVPD did not change significantly up to 6 days, but decreased thereafter. There was no change in water potential and osmotic potential for carrots at medium and low WVPD. A significant quadratic relationship (P = 0.05, r = –0.764) between water potential and carrot root weight loss was observed. Relative electrolyte leakage increased over time in carrots at the high WVPD.
Species abundance, food preference and nutritive value of goat diets in the semi-arid lands of east-central Kenya
(1996) Osolo, NK.; Kinuthia, JN.; Gachuiri, CK.; Okeyo, AM.; Wanyoike, MM.; Okomo, M.
The key forage species and nutrient composition of forage species preferred by free-ranging East African goats in rangelands of eastern-central Kenya were determined. One hundred and five forage species were identified including 30 tree, 29 shrub, 20 grass and 25 forb species. Shrubs and short trees were the most preferred forage species and thus formed the bulk of the goat diets. Ironically the forage species most preferred by the goats were not necessarily the most abundant on the ground, indicating that ease of accessibility and palatability may be important determinants for choice of a forage specie. That grasses and forbs were the least preferred could be largely explained by the fact that goats are naturally browsers.
Potassium nutrition and shelf life of carrots (Daucus carota L.)
(American society for horticultural science, 1996-08-01) Shibairo, Solomon I.; Upadhyaya, MK.; Toivonen, PMA.
The effect of potassium (K) nutrition on the shelf life of carrots was studied using a hydroponics system involving rockwool slabs as support. Carrots were grown for 192 days under greenhouse conditions and supplied with 0, 0.1, 1.0, 10, and 15 mm of K. Increase in K concentration in the nutrient medium decreased postharvest weight loss. Carrot weight and tissue K content increased and water potential, osmotic potential, and relative solute leakage decreased with increasing K concentration in the nutrient feed. Differences in postharvest weight loss were mainly associated to root weight and relative solute leakage. Root weight correlated negatively and relative solute leakage correlated positively to water loss. Water and osmotic potential also correlated to water loss, but not as strongly as root weight and relative solute leakage.
Influence of preharvest water stress on postharvest weight loss of carrots (Daucus carota L.)
(American society for horticultural science, 1996-08-01) Upadhyaya, MK.; Shibairo, Solomon I.; Toivonen, PMA.
To understand the relationship between preharvest water stress and postharvest moisture loss, carrot cvs Eagle and Paramount were grown in muck soil in 6 1 pots (eight carrots per pot) in a greenhouse at the University of British Columbia. The plants were watered to field capacity every second day for 5.5 months prior to receiving 100,75,50 and 25% field capacity water stress treatments (for 4.5 weeks), henceforth referred to as low, medium, high and severe water stress respectively. Postharvest moisture loss of carrots stored at 13μC and 32% relative humidity was monitored every second day for three weeks. The percent moisture loss was low in the low water stressed, and high in the severely water stressed carrots of both cultivars. Root crown diameter, weight, and water and osmotic potentials decreased, whereas specific surface area and relative solute leakage increased with increasing preharvest water stress. The results show that carrots adjust to water stress by lowering water and osmotic potentials. Root water potential, followed by relative solute leakage, were the variables which accounted for most of the variation in moisture loss. It is suggested that preharvest water stress lowers membrane integrity of carrot roots, and this may enhance moisture loss during storage.
Weed Control in Cole Crops and Onion (Allium cepa) Using Ammonium Nitrate
(Cambridge University Press, 1996-12) Bitterlich, Iris; Upadhyaya, M.K.; Shibairo, Solomon I.
Weed control in cole crops and onion by postemergence spraying with liquid ammonium nitrate was studied to determine its feasibility under Fraser Valley, British Columbia conditions. Ammonium nitrate solutions (7.5, 10, 15 and 20% N) were applied at 800 L ha−1 on warm, sunny days. Shepherd's-purse, low cudweed, redroot pigweed and ladysthumb were susceptible to this treatment; common lambsquarters, common purslane and annual bluegrass were tolerant. In order to determine the effect of weed density on weed control, several shepherd's-purse densities were established in broccoli and sprayed with ammonium nitrate solution (20% N; 800 L ha−1). Two days after treatment, weed control was 87.2% for an initial density of 500 shepherd's-purse plants m−2 (1987) and 76.1% for an initial density of 988 plants m−2 (1988). The seedlings that survived the treatment were sufficiently set back that they did not cause any adverse effect on crop yield. In a separate study, cabbage and onion were found to be tolerant to the ammonium nitrate treatment. Initially, cauliflower, broccoli and Brussels sprouts growth was slightly inhibited by the ammonium nitrate treatment but the plants recovered and crop yield was not affected.
Replacement of postharvest moisture loss by recharging and its effect on subsequent moisture loss during short-term storage of carrots (Daucus carota L.)
(American society for horticultural science, 1997-06-01) Upadhyaya, MK.; Shibairo, Solomon I.; Toivonen, PMA.
The replacement of postharvest moisture loss in carrots (cv. Caro-choice) by single and repeated recharging (i.e., rehydration in water) treatments, interaction between the duration of recharging and temperature during recharging, and the effects of these treatments on moisture loss during subsequent short-term storage were studied. Carrot weight gain increased with increase in the duration of single recharging treatments. Carrots that had lost 2.96% of their weight, during storage at 13°C and 35% relative humidity, regained as much as 2.45% of the weight during recharging for 12 h. Longer rechargings had little additional effect. Recharging at 13°C and 26°C was more effective at replacing water than at 0°C. The rate of moisture loss (%/day) during subsequent storage was not affected by recharging duration and the temperature. With repeated recharging (every 3.5 d), increase in recharging duration up to 9 h …
Oxfendazole treatment for cystic hydatid disease in naturally infected animals
(American Society for Microbiology, 1997-09-09) Blanton, Ronald E.; Wachira, Timothy M.; Zeyhle, Eberhard E.; Njoroge, Ernest M.; Magambo, Japheth K.; Schantz, Peter M.
Few chemotherapeutic agents are available for the medical management of hydatid disease caused by the parasite Echinococcus granulosus. In order to test the potential of oxfendazole for the treatment of infection with this parasite, nine infected goats and four sheep were given oxfendazole twice weekly at a dose of 30 mg/kg of body weight for 4 weeks and monitored by ultrasound for an additional 4 weeks. Efficacy was finally evaluated by postmortem examination, including determination of protoscolex viability and cyst wall histology. In treated animals, protoscolices were dead or absent in 97% of cysts from oxfendazole-treated animals compared to 28% of cysts from untreated control animals. On postmortem examination, 53% of cysts from treated animals were found to be grossly degenerate. A sample of those cysts that appeared potentially viable all demonstrated evidence of severe damage to the cyst wall. By light microscopy, cysts showed severe disorganization of the adventitial layer with invasion of inflammatory cells and in some cases frank necrosis with no apparent adventitial layer. The follow-up period for assessment of the drug’s ability to cause complete degeneration and resorption of cysts was relatively short. This study, however, indicates that oxfendazole is at least as effective as and is easier to administer than albendazole for the treatment of hydatid disease.
A rural poultry production manual
(1998) Ndegwa, JM.; Kimani, CW.; Siamba, Donald N.
: Indigenous chickens in Kenya are about 22 million and are kept by 90% of the rural communities in small flocks of up to 30 birds mainly under free range system. The industry is flexible and does not require a lot of space. When people retire or are retrenched they easily start poultry keeping. Distinct indigenous chicken ecotypes have been identified and named. The names are phenotypic descriptions of the birds. The names used to describe the common phenotypes in Kenya are-frizzled feathered, naked neck, barred feathered, feathered shanks, bearded and dwarf sized. The local ecotypes of the chickens vary in body size, conformation, plumage colour and performance. The birds are hardy and thrive under a harsh environment with minimal inputs. They get most of their feed from scavenging and may occasionally benefit from kitchen and other household wastes. Eggs and chicken meat contribute to the protein nutrition of the rural population thus alleviating malnutrition. Sales of eggs and meat earn and diversify incomes for rural households especially among women and children who control benefits accruing from the enterprise. It has also helped those affected and infected by HIV Aids because it does not involve a lot of hard work. Indigenous chicken in Kenya are about 76 % of the total poultry population and produce about 55 and 47% of the total meat and eggs respectively. Productivity is low due to factors which include genotype, poor nutrition, diseases and management. Feed supplementation, provision of housing and disease control was found to improve growth rate and egg production.
Maize technology development and transfer
(International maize and wheat improvement center, 1998) Shibairo, Solomon I.; Makumbi, Dan.
More than three decades of systematic research have been directed toward maize technology development and transfer in Kenya. During that period, the maize research program of the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARl) developed successful technologies that profoundly affected maize production, both within Kenya and elsewhere in eastern Africa. The rapid diffusion of improved maize technologies in Kenya is a well-known African parallel to the spread of hybrid maize in the USA. This is especially true in the highlands of Kenya, where most maize land was sown to hybrids within less than two decades from the birth of formal maize research at Kitale. However, the past three decades have also witnessed Significant change in the socioeconomic and institutional environment of farming in Kenya, presenting newer challenges to maize research, extension, and policy. Land reform, population growth and movement, economic and infrastructural development - among other trends - have shaped corresponding adaptive responses in maize production. The maize research program has continued to adjust its emphasis and efforts accordingly. Intent on obtaining better guidance for setting its research priorities, KARl was particularly interested in exploiting the new tools of research evaluation, which would make it possible to combine and analyze many different kinds of data related to Kenya 's maize economy. As a result, the Kenya Maize Data Base Project (MDBP) was launched in collaboration with the Economics Program of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The MDBP, which formed part of the national program of maize research in Kenya, received partial funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and the bilateral USAID mission in Kenya for two years, starting March 1992.
Replacement of postharvest moisture loss by recharging and its effect on subsequent moisture loss during short-term storage of carrots
(American Society for Horticultural Science, 1998-01-01) Shibairo, Solomon I.; Upadhyaya, Mahesh K.; Toivonen, Peter M. A.
Replacing postharvest moisture loss in carrots (Daucus carota L., `Caro-choice') by single and repeated recharging (rehydration in water) treatments, interaction between the duration of recharging and temperature during recharging, and the effects of these treatments on moisture loss during subsequent short-term storage were studied. Carrot mass gain increased with increase in duration of single recharging treatments. Carrots that had lost 2.96% of their mass during storage at 13 °C and 35% relative humidity regained as much as 83% of the mass during recharging for 12 hours. Longer rechargings had little additional effect. Recharging at 13 °C and 26 °C was more effective at replacing water than at 0 °C. The rate of moisture loss (percent per day) during subsequent storage was not affected by recharging duration and temperature during recharging. With repeated recharging every 3.5 days, increase in recharging duration up to 9 hours increased carrot mass gain. Most of the mass gain occurred following 0 to 7 days of storage. These treatments, however, did not affect the rate of moisture loss during subsequent storage. These results suggest that the beneficial effect of recharging on carrot quality is due to replacement of the lost moisture and not to a decrease in moisture loss during storage following recharging. Abrading increased mass loss in non-recharged carrots and increased mass gain during recharging. Recharging should be explored as an option to improve the shelf life of carrots.
Postharvest moisture loss characteristics of carrot (Daucus carota L.) cultivars during short-term storage
(Elsevier, 1998-02-13) Shibairo, Solomon I.; Toivonen, Peter; Upadhyaya, Mahesh K.
Differences in moisture loss characteristics among carrot cultivars Imperator Special 58, Gold Pak 28, Caro-pride, Paramount, Eagle, Celloking, Top Pak and Caro-choice during short-term storage at 13 °C and at either 80% or 35% relative humidity were investigated. Experiments were conducted over two years with an early and late harvest in each year. Moisture loss was significantly greater when carrots were stored at low relative humidity compared to high relative humidity. Consistent cultivar differences in moisture loss characteristics were observed only in the late-harvested carrots at low relative humidity. Cultivars with higher specific surface area and relative electrolyte leakage, and lower water and osmotic potentials exhibited high moisture losses. Regression analysis, however, showed that moisture loss differences among cultivars were mainly associated with the specific surface area of the root.
Characteristics of rural poultry production in different agro-ecological zones in Kenya
(1998-11-09) Ndegwa, JM.; Kimani, CW.; Siamba, Donald N.; Mukisira, EA.; Jong, R de.
A cross-sectional was conducted to establish the characteristics of rural poultry production in Nyandarua, Nakuru and Laikipia districts of Kenya. Sites of diverse agroecological zones (AEZ) in the 3 district were selected, thus Ol Kalou in Nyandarua, Njoro in Nakuru and Ng'arua in Laikipia. Each site was divided into 4 clusters according to AEZ and land size. Systematic sampling techniques were applied to select farmers. A checklist was then used to collect the baseline information for every household. The study revealed that the average flock size was 17.3 chicken with Ng'arua region demonstrating the largest flock size of 21 chickens. The purpose of rearing indigenous chicken were stated as home consumption and sale of eggs and meat, hatching eggs, and as gifts.Farmers in Ng'arua region reported the highest sale of eggs and chicken meat. the average number of broodings per year, number of eggs laid before a chicken becomes broody, eggs set for hatching and hatchability was 2.5, 16.5, 11.1 and 84.2%, respectively. The average chick mortality reported by farmers in te first eight weeks was 47.9%. Disease especially Newcastle, were cited as the main cause of mortality. Farmers did not commonly practice selection for genetic improvement, but occasionally they purchased a cock or hen to control inbreeding. In all the 3 regions, 78.4% of the respondents indicated that women took greater responsibility and decision making in the production of indigenous chicken; 54.8% of farmers used different herbs to treat and control diseases. Conventional vaccination,disinfection and deworming rarely practiced. On most farms, chickens were left to scavenge around the homestead, often they were supplemented with kitchen leftovers and a handful of grains. The survey results demonstrated that there was potential for improving rural poultry production through interventions using appropriate technologies that are currently on-shelf.
Improved cow fertility through appropriate management practices on-farm in Koibatek and Nakuru districts
(KARI, 1999) Siamba, Donald N.; Lokwaleput, I.; Jong, Rde.
n a survey conducted in 1996, 82 (22.6 percent) of all cows with impaired fertility, i.e expected calving interval over 1.5 years, were found on 63 and 53 farms in Koibatek District and Nakuru District (Bahati Division), respectively. The cows were appraised visually for body condition, and rectal palpation was done to determine the condition of their reproductive organs. The appraisal revealed that about 50 percent of the cows were in poor condition and about 60 percent were in anoestrus, thus indicating the effect of nutrition. Work carried out earlier in Kiambu, Nyandarua and Nakuru Districts of Kenya on factors causing impaired fertility in cows on-farm, showed that management factors and most importantly, nutrition was the primary cause
Streptococcal meningitis in a five-month-old male lamb
(1999) Maribei, J.M.; Wabacha, J.K.; Njoroge, Ernest M.
Streptococcus species cause a wide variety of diseases in food animals, including septicaemia, mastitis, meningitis, encephalitis and pneumonia5 . Meningitis due to Streptococcus spp. is commonly a complication of bacteraemia and septicaemia in neonates. In older animals, streptococcal meningitis is common only in pigs3 . A case of streptococcal meningitis in a 5-month-old lamb is reported. To the best of our knowledge this is the 1st report of the disease in an older lamb. A 5-month-old male lamb was brought to the University of Nairobi Large Animal Clinic with a history of being well in the early morning and then falling frequently to the left side later in the day. A clinical examination was carried out and blood taken in EDTA for haematology. In addition, cerebrospinal fluid was obtained aseptically through the atlanto-occipital joint and submitted for bacterial culture and sensitivity determination. On clinical examination, the lamb was dull, recumbent, staggered when forced to move and would fall over to the left side. Body temperature was 40.0 C and there was opisthotonus. It was hyperaesthetic, grinding its teeth, with paddling movements of the hind limbs and appeared blind. A tentative diagnosis of meningitis was made on the basis of the clinical manifestation.
Water intoxication in cattle
(1999) Njoroge, Ernest M.; Maribeia, J.M.; Mbuguaa, P. N.; Njiru, S M.
Water intoxication is a condition that is common in cattle, and has also been reported in other domestic animals and man. A comprehensive description of the condition is lacking. For a better understanding of the condition, this paper reviews work that has been reported previously by various authors.
Effects of supplementation on cows with impaired fertility in Koibatek and Nakuru districts Kenya
(1999) Lokwaleput, I; Siamba, Donald N.
In a survey conducted in 1996, 82 and 60 cows with impaired fertility were found on 63 and 53 farms in Koibatek District and Bahati division, Nakuru district, respectively. These cows were appraised visually for body condition, and rectal palpation was done to determine the condition of their reproductive organs. The survey revealed that about 50% of the cows were in poor condition; about 60% were in anoestrus, thus indicating the effect of nutrition. Work carried out earlier in Kiambu, Nyandarua and Nakuru districts of Kenya to ascertain factors causing impaired fertility in cows on-farm, showed that management factors and most importantly, nutrition has the greatest effect. These study has therefore confirmed this phenomenon. An on-farm experiment was therefore conducted from mid -November, 1996 to early March, 1997 to determine effects of feeding supplements on the reproduction performance of cows fertility with calving intervals 1.5 years. Thirty six cows on 32 farms in Koibatek were assigned to three treatments: 14 to Dairy meal (DM), 12 to minerals (MIN) and 10 to Dairy meal and minerals (DM+MIN). In Bahati 40 cows, each on a farm were assigned to four treatments: 10 to DM, 10 to MIN , 10 to DM+MIN and 10 to Free grazing (FG). Apart from normal grazing or Stall-feeding, experimental animals were fed daily for 105 days with additional concentrates (DM=2 kg) Dairy meal and/or minerals (MIN: 50 g Maclick super). Freely grazed animals without supplementation acted as controls. Cows were monitored for reproductive events, liveweight changes and milk production. At the start of the experiment, the liveweights of the animals were 356 and 343 kg in Koibatek and Bahati, respectively. During supplemetation, the average liveweights of the cows increased by 18 and 25 kg, while milk production increased by 10 and 5% in Koibatek and Bahati, respectively. These increases were for cows on DM+MIN and were realized during the second month of supplementation. cows on treatments DM, MIN and FG demonstrated lower gains than those on DM+MIN; the effects of Drought further diminished there weight gains. In Koibatek, the percentages of cows that calved out of the total number were 50% for DM, 58% for MIN, and 80% for DM+Min. In Bahati, they were 60% for DM, 50% for MIN, and 70% for DM+MIN and 30% for FG. The study demonstrated that supplementation reduced the interval between the start of the supplementation and conception by an average of 130.0 days
Effect of source, time and method of nitrogen application on growth and yield components of potato in Kenya
(2000) Mburu, Mary WK.; Gathungu, GK.; Shibairo, Solomon I.; Githiri, SM.; Ojiambo, PS.; Kidanemariam, HM.
The effect of different sources of Nitrogen (N), time and method of application on growth and development of potato was investigated over two seasons using the cultivar Dutch Robjyn. The three sources of nitrogen (Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN, 26% N); Urea (46% N) and Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate (ASN, 27%N)] constituted the main plot treatments, and time [early application, split application (half of the fertiliser at planting and half applied 5 weeks after emergence), and late application (5 weeks after emergence)] and method of application (placement and broadcast within the furrow) constituted the subplots treatments. Early application of N followed by split applied fertiliser led to a fast early growth (shoot, tuber, root and total dry matter, Leaf Area Index (LAI) development, and plant height) particularly where CAN or ASN was applied. Late N application enhanced growth of the shoots (leaves and plant height) later in the growth season particularly with Urea. Broadcast or placement of N in the furrow had no significant effect (P<0.05) on growth and development. There was significant difference (P<0.05) between the times of application of N. Early application of N followed by split applied fertiliser showed the greatest tuber yield. Late application of fertiliser had the lowest tuber yield but the highest total N accumulation in both leaves and tubers. Broadcasting and placement of N in furrows had no significant effect on nitrogen content, tuber numbers and yield/plant. CAN followed by ASN promoted tuber growth and yield more than Urea. CAN, should thus be applied early in the growth season either as a broadcast or placement in the furrow and application of Urea is less beneficial since it is amenable to leaching and volatilisation.
Epidemiology and control of echinococcosis in sub-saharan Africa
(Elsevier, 2000) Magamboa, Japhet; Njoroge, Ernest M.; Zeyhleb, Eberhard
Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is highly endemic among the nomadic pastoral tribes of East Africa, but is rare amongst the agriculturally based communities. Echinococcus granulosus infections are common in dogs from all countries in sub-Saharan Africa where they have been examined. Transmission of E. granulosus to humans is affected by such factors as prevalence of the parasite in domestic dogs, behaviors of humans towards dogs, and heterogenicity of the parasite and susceptibility of humans to infection. Sheep and goats appear to be the most common domestic intermediate hosts, but recent studies suggest that camels are equally important intermediate host, especially in Sudan and Turkana. At least five of ten E. granulosus genotypes are infective to humans in sub-Saharan African. Most human cases of CE are caused by the sheep strain (GI) and camel strain (G6) of E. granulosus. Other strains occurring in the area may include a lion strain, the horse strain (G4 or Echinococcus equinus) and the cattle strain (G5 or Echinococcus ortleppi).

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